12
were destined to carry on throughout the rest of China’s ancient
history. That included collecting and retelling whatever myths then
existed. Initially, however, and for many centuries to come, those
retellings and the perpetuation of myths was done by word of
mouth. Although a writing system emerged around 1200 BCE,
in Shang times it was not used to record religious ceremonies or
myths.
The first written versions of China’s myths appeared close to one
thousand years later. Some of those written stories are undoubt-
edly based on tales from the long preceding oral tradition and are
therefore very ancient. But other written myths arose over time, so
Chinese mythology consists of a complex mix of older and newer
tales. Also, writers in different parts of China frequently recorded
their own personal variations of widely popular myths. As a result,
University of Cambridge scholar Anne Birrell points out, “Chinese
myth survives in numerous versions, the content of which is broadly
consistent, but which shows significant variation in details.”
2
Minor Local Gods
That theme of variation in beliefs and myths was also applied to
the Chinese gods and their identities, roles, and relative impor-
tance to humans. Over the centuries separate pockets of civiliza-
tion grew up in scattered areas of China, including several river
valleys, the mountains, the seacoasts, and so forth. Parts or all of
them were sometimes united by one ruler or dynasty, yet the local
areas long retained many of their individ-
ual customs and beliefs. That included
their local gods. As a result, no overall
pantheon, or group of related gods, was
ever completely accepted by everyone,
even when certain rulers promoted one.
Certain crucial or colorful deities were
more or less accepted in a majority of
regions. But often they went by different
names in different areas, and with a few
Zao-shen
The minor de-
ity of the kitchen
who monitored a
family’s behavior
and reported to a
higher god
