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and a nearly complete human skeleton—contributed to scien-
tists’ understanding of human evolution. “I’d spent most of my
life groveling in the sediments,” Leakey says, “so I had a fairly
good idea of how to go about finding these things.” 9
These three people came from different backgrounds and
time periods, but they shared a passion for their chosen area of
research and wound up making important contributions to sci-
ence. However, this unconventional path from amateur to expert
is not easy to tread. Goodall initially faced hostility from the scien-
tific establishment for her unusual research methods. Amateurs
often face difficulty in getting scientific institutions and journals to
take their work seriously.
Theoretical physics, for example, delves into questions about
the nature of the universe that many people enjoy thinking about.
Some of these amateurs believe that they have discovered an-
swers to difficult questions and send their work to scientists. “We
certainly have a tendency not to pay attention,” says Tom Rizzo
of Stanford University. For most of the amateur theories, he says,
“you don’t have to look for very long before you see a mistake
that a physics student wouldn’t make.” Ideas from outside the
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mainstream are still welcome, but amateurs in theoretical physics
or most other scientific disciplines will have to go to much greater
lengths to prove themselves than someone with a degree from a
reputable institution. While it’s certainly possible for amateurs and
citizen scientists to make important contributions, anyone inter-
ested in science as a career should pursue a formal education.

From the Sky to the Earth
Some areas of scientific inquiry, however, are more open than
others to the contributions of hobbyists and enthusiasts. In as-
tronomy, amateurs regularly contribute to discoveries. The sky is
vast, and no one knows exactly when or where a new and inter-
esting event might occur. In addition, time on the world’s largest
telescopes is in high demand. Professionals have to wait in line
for time to make observations. Meanwhile, anyone with access to

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